Foundations for upper level language-literacy (reading and written language)
Reading and writing skills are advanced language forms that depend on a firm foundation in spoken language (speaking and listening). Below are six aspects that make up the foundation for language-literacy.
For ideas and Web links to engage practice in each of these 'LAUNCHING PADS' click on the Language Workouts link at the bottom of the Parents' Page. (See the navigation bar to the left).
I. Speech Sounds & Phonics
Awareness of speech sound (phonemes) is considered a "necessary but not sufficient" underpinning for upper level literacy. While all good readers do read many printed words as whole units, skilled reading requires the ability to read words one has never before seen in print. To do this, the reader must realize that letters represent speech sounds. Further, they must develop a facility with the specific ways speech sounds are represented by those letters (phonics) in English. Although the majority of English words (87%) are spelled with predictable sound-letter patterns, the sound-letter associations in English are somewhat complex, especially for vowel patterns. Students can benefit from learning the six syllable types in English, which are the key to predicting how to read and spell English vowels.
The goal should be for students to become independent readers of novel words by the end of third grade. When students can read and pronounce the printed word they have never before seen they can add these new words (and concepts) to their vocabulary without the constant aid of a parent or teacher each time an unfamiliar word is encountered.
Although it is never too late, it is best if phonics skills can be developed during the first two-three years of schooling. Ease of development of phonics skills is not particularly associated with general intelligence, but does depend on several genetically-linked neurolinguistic abilities, including 1) speech sound (phonological) awareness and 2) efficient association of those speech sounds with letter(s) that represent them. This means that even some very intelligent people can find it difficult to read and spell using speech-to-print patterns, but also it means that this important literacy skill can be improved with structured practice.
II. Word Reading and Spelling
Words must be read and spelled automatically (i.e., with sufficient accuracy and speed) in order for there to be adequate mental resources for (reading) comprehension and (written) expression. When word reading and spelling lack fluency and ease the quality of connected text reading and writing is eroded.
Here are some resources for benchmarking the fluency of oral reading:
Oral Reading Fluency Norms (Hasbrouck/Tindal Table)
III. Vocabulary
Knowledge of the meaning of words and word parts is basic to all aspects of language and communication. Students who know lot of words (i.e., have good vocabulary skills) tend to be much better readers and writers, and they do better on standardized tests. Vocabulary building pays big dividends. We all learn new words best by hearing and using them in daily conversations, and children are no different.
New words do tend to be learned most easily when they are part of interesting communication, such as a lively conversation or reading an interesting story. Even so, older children can benefit from vocabulary 'exercises,' especially if they are motivated. For example, here is a Web site on which students can earn rice for starving people through the United Nations World Food Program by practicing vocabulary. (This exercise might be fun for students who can read at least at a 3rd grade level.) www.freerice.com
English has more words than any other language…over 600,000 words and growing! English words have three main historical roots: Anglo-Saxon, Latin and Greek.
Understanding the historical roots of English words of can help us learn and remember new English words. For example, most of the science words in English come to us from Greek roots. The Greek language uses word parts (called combining forms) that can be hooked together to form scientific terms. One example of a Greek combining form is -ology, as in the words biology, geology and astrology. (Explore the use of the Greek combining form, -ology, on the Museum of Natural History Site)
IV. Grammar & Syntax
Communication of complex ideas require more than just isolated words. Along with vocabulary, word order and use in sentences (syntax) enables us to express and understand complex ideas. Through formal education, students learn to use standard English syntax (i.e., standard grammar) in speking and writing. These formal are built up slowly over years of formal education. Here is an on-line guide to grammar and writing that suggests the scope of what must be learned in this area: http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/
V. Language Comprehension (Listening & Reading)
Comprehension is the 'end game' for reading. Students who have good listening comprehension and accurate and effortless decoding generally have good reading comprehension. When students have good listening and reading comprehension they can use use these skills for critical thinking and inquiry. For an example of listening and reading comprehension as a basis of inquiry, see the Great Books Foundation's method, called "Shared Inquiry."
VI. Language Expression (Talking & Writing)
Written language skill is based, first and foremost, on skill with expressive oral language (speaking). In addition to the ability to formulate the language orally, the writer must have facility with letter formation (or typing), spelling, the conventions and syntax of sentence formation and punctuation, and paragraph organization. All these elements of language expression can and should be isolated for directed and specific practice, using a sequenced hierarchy of complexity.
